2015年7月26日 星期日

Scala Functional Language 簡介 (Session 5)

Scala Functional Language 簡介

Functional Language 其實很早就有了,只是 OOP 概念比較能讓人接受,因此 Functional Language 就被忽略。近來大數據需要做大量平行與分散式的運算,Functional Lanauge 才又被重視。

Functional Language 簡單來說,就是:

Treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids changing-state and mutable data (Side Effects)

截自 Wiki: Functional Lanauge

名詞解釋

Mathematical Functions

Mathematical Functions 簡單來說,就是兩個集合間的關係,且每一個輸入值,只會對應到一個輸出值。

最簡單的數學函數的表示式:

\[f: X \mapsto Y\]

比如說:Square

\[Square: Int \mapsto Int \] \[f(x) = x^2\]

比如 \(f(3) = 9\), \(f(-3) = 9\) ,每次計算 \(f(3)\) 一定都會是 9 不會變成其他值。

Side Effects

程式的函式有以下的行為時,就會稱該函式有 Side Effects

  • Reassigning a variable (val v.s. var)
  • Modify a data structure in place (mutable v.s. immutable)
  • Setting a field on an object (change object state)
    • 這裏指的 object 是 OOP 的 Object 不是 Scala 的 object (singleton)
    • OOP 修改物件的值,在程式語言的術語:改變物件的狀態,如上說的 changing-state
  • Throwing an exception or halting with error
  • Printing to the console or reading user input (I/O)
  • Reading from or write to a file (I/O)
  • Drawing on the screen (I/O)

截自 Functional Language in Scala

就實際狀況來說,我們寫程式不可能不去碰 I/O。

Purely Functions

Purely functional functions (or expressions) have no side effects (memory or I/O).

截自 Wiki: Purely Function

Referential Transparency (RT)

An expression is said to be referentially transparent if it can be replaced with its value without changing the behavior of a program

截自 Wiki: Referential Transparency

簡單來說,程式碼中的變數,可以用此變數的值或運算式子來取代,而且不會改變輸出的結果。

舉例來說:String 是 immutable,當每次呼叫 reverse 時,都會回傳固定的值。

scala> val x = "Hello, World"
x: String = Hello, World

scala> val r1 = x.reverse
r1: String = dlroW ,olleH

scala> val r2 = x.reverse
r2: String = dlroW ,olleH

此時,可以將上述的 x 直接替換成 Hello, World,程式的結果都不會被改變。此特性,就是 Referential Transparency。如下:

scala> val r1 = "Hello, World".reverse
r1: String = dlroW ,olleH

scala> val r2 = "Hello, World".reverse
r2: String = dlroW ,olleH

另舉反例:StringBuilder 是 mutable,append 會修改 StringBuffer 內的值 (change object state)。

scala> val x = new StringBuilder("Hello")
x: StringBuilder = Hello

scala> val y = x.append(", World")
y: StringBuilder = Hello, World

scala> val r1 = y.toString
r1: String = Hello, World

scala> val r2 = y.toString
r2: String = Hello, World

當將 y 替換成 x.append(", World") 時:

scala> val r1 = x.append(", World").toString
r1: String = Hello, World

scala> val r2 = x.append(", World").toString
r2: String = Hello, World, World

此時 r1r2 的值並不一致,這樣子就沒有 Referential Transparency

範例截自: Functional Language in Scala

為什麼 Referential Transparency 如此重要

當程式設計都符合 Referential Transparency 時,就代表程式可以分散在不同 Thread, CPU核心,甚至不同主機上處理(空間),而且不論什麼時候被處理(時間),都不會影響輸出的結果。

Funcational Language 程式設計的終極目標就是 Referential Transparency。

First-Class Function and High Order Function

First-Class Function

一個程式語言有 First-Class Function 特性,是指此程式語言將 Function 當作是一種資料型態。

在 Scala 中,有定義 Function 這個 class。如下:

scala> val max = (x: Int, y:Int) => if (x > y) x else y
max: (Int, Int) => Int = <function2>

scala> max(3, 4)
res5: Int = 4

High Order Function

Hight Order Function 是指 Function 其中一個參數的資料型別是 Function。比如 Listforeach

scala> List(1, 2, 3, 4) foreach { x => println(x + x) }
2
4
6
8

Function Composition

數學的複合函數:

\[f: X \mapsto Y\]

\[g: Y \mapsto Z\]

\[ g \circ f: X \mapsto Z\]

\[ (g \circ f )(x) = g(f(x))\]

在 Scala 上的實作,有 composeandThen

f andThen g 等同於 \( g \circ f \)

f compose g 等同於 \( f \circ g \)

eg:

scala> val f = (x: Int) => x * x
f: Int => Int = <function1>

scala> val g = (x: Int) => x + 1
g: Int => Int = <function1>

scala> val goff = f andThen g
goff: Int => Int = <function1>

scala> goff(10)
res10: Int = 101

scala> val fofg = f compose g
fofg: Int => Int = <function1>

scala> fofg(10)
res11: Int = 121

轉成 Function Class

一般會用 def 宣告 function;可以使用 _ 轉換成 Function Class。如下:

scala> def f(x: Int) = x * x
f: (x: Int)Int

scala> def g(x: Int) = x + 1
g: (x: Int)Int

scala> f andThen g
<console>:10: error: missing arguments for method f;
follow this method with `_' if you want to treat it as a partially applied function
              f andThen g
              ^
<console>:10: error: missing arguments for method g;
follow this method with `_' if you want to treat it as a partially applied function
              f andThen g
                        ^
                        
 scala> f _ andThen g _
res1: Int => Int = <function1>

Partially Applied Function

def sum(x: Int, y: Int, z: Int) = x + y + z
sum: (x: Int, y: Int, z: Int)Int

scala> val a = sum _
a: (Int, Int, Int) => Int = <function3>

scala> val b = sum(1, _: Int, 3)
b: Int => Int = <function1>

scala> b(2)
res1: Int = 6

Closure

A function object that captures free variables, and is said to be “closed” over the variables visible at the time it is created.

舉例:

scala> var more = 10
more: Int = 10

scala> val addMore = (x: Int) => x + more
addMore: Int => Int = <function1>

addMore 是一個 Closure. more 這個變數是 free variable. xbounded variable.

Currying

假設有個 function 由兩個以上的集合對應到一個集合:

\[f: X \times Y \mapsto Z\]

比如說:

\[f(x, y) = \frac{y}{x}\]

我們可以定義一個 Curring Function

\[h(x) = y \mapsto f(x, y)\]

\(h(x)\) 是一個 Function ,它的輸入值是 x ,回傳值是 Function 。

比如說:

\[h(2) = y \mapsto f(2, y)\]

這時候的 \( h(2) \) 是一個 Function:

\[ f(2, y) = \frac {y}{2} \]

此時,我們可以再定義一個 Function: \(g(y) \)

\[g(y) = h(2) = y \mapsto f(2, y)\]

也就是

\[g(y) = f(2, y) = \frac {y}{2}\]

在 Scala 的實作:

定義 \( f: X \times Y \mapsto Z \)

scala> def f(x: Int)(y: Int) = y / x
f: (x: Int)(y: Int)Int

scala> f(4)(2)
res7: Int = 0

scala> f(2)(4)
res8: Int = 2

定義 \( g(y) = h(2) = y \mapsto f(2, y) \) i.e. \[g(y) = f(2, y) = \frac {y}{2} \]

scala> val h = f(2) _
h: Int => Int = <function1>

當 \( y = 4 \) 時,

\[g(4) = f(2, 4) = \frac {4} {2} = 2\]

scala> h(4)
res9: Int = 2

範例截自 Wiki: Curring

另一種使用時機:

scala> def modN(n: Int)(x: Int) = ((x % n) == 0)
modN: (n: Int)(x: Int)Boolean

scala> val nums = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)
nums: List[Int] = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)

scala> nums filter { modN(2) }
res10: List[Int] = List(2, 4, 6, 8)

scala> nums filter { modN(3) }
res11: List[Int] = List(3, 6)

數學式對應:

\[modN: Int \times Int \mapsto Boolean\]

\[modN(n, x) \Rightarrow ((x \bmod n ) == 0)\]

\[mod2(x) = modN(2, x) \Rightarrow ((x \bmod 2) == 0)\]

\[mod3(x) = modN(3, x) \Rightarrow ((x \bmod 3) == 0)\]

範例截自:Scala Document: Currying

Scala Partial Function

一般定義 Function 都會去處理輸入值的所有情況。比如說:

def plusOne(x: Int) = x + 1

所有 Int 整數值,傳進 plusOne 都會被處理。

Partial Function 換言之就是只處理某些狀況下的值。

定義:

scala> val one: PartialFunction[Int, String] = { case 1 => "one" }
one: PartialFunction[Int,String] = <function1>

使用:如果輸入沒有要處理的值時,會出現 Exception。比如 1 有定義,但 2 沒有,所以輸入 1 沒問題,輸入 2 就會有 Exception

scala> one(1)
res0: String = one

scala> one(2)
scala.MatchError: 2 (of class java.lang.Integer)
  at scala.PartialFunction$$anon$1.apply(PartialFunction.scala:253)
  at scala.PartialFunction$$anon$1.apply(PartialFunction.scala:251)
  at $anonfun$1.applyOrElse(<console>:7)
  at $anonfun$1.applyOrElse(<console>:7)
  at scala.runtime.AbstractPartialFunction.apply(AbstractPartialFunction.scala:36)
  ... 33 elided

查詢輸入值,是否已在處理的範圍內:

scala> one.isDefinedAt(1)
res2: Boolean = true

scala> one.isDefinedAt(2)
res3: Boolean = false

Composition of Partial Function

可以使用多個 Partial Function 組成一個複合函數。

scala> val two: PartialFunction[Int, String] = { case 2 => "two" }
two: PartialFunction[Int,String] = <function1>

scala> val three: PartialFunction[Int, String] = { case 3 => "three" }
three: PartialFunction[Int,String] = <function1>

scala> val wildcard: PartialFunction[Int, String] = { case _ => "something else" }
wildcard: PartialFunction[Int,String] = <function1>

scala> val partial = one orElse two orElse three orElse wildcard
partial: PartialFunction[Int,String] = <function1>

scala> partial(5)
res4: String = something else

scala> partial(3)
res5: String = three

scala> partial(2)
res6: String = two

scala> partial(1)
res7: String = one

scala> partial(0)
res8: String = something else

scala> partial.isDefinedAt(10)
res9: Boolean = true

scala> partial.isDefinedAt(1000)
res10: Boolean = true

範例截自:Twitter Scala School - Partial Function

總結

開始使用 Functional Lanague 時,思維需要做改變,程式設計時,以往用 OO 處理的設計,要轉換到是否可以切割成 Function 來處理,尤其是 Function 要符合數學函數或 Purly Function 的定義,Functional Language 程式的設計思維,會更倚重數學邏輯。

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